Learning and Training for Work in the Knowledge Society

Chapter III. Education, Initial Training and Skills for Employability and Work

1. Evolving Objectives and Provision of Basic Education and Initial Training
2. Education and Initial Training Reforms: Trends and Practices
   1. Current Situation
   2. Trends and Practices
   3. New Institutional Arrangements for Providing Education and Initial Training

The present chapter reviews recent basic education and initial training reforms in developing and developed countries. Supported by efforts to diversify the sources of financing education and to introduce greater accountability, these reforms endeavour to improve the quality and efficiency of education; ensure equitable access to education and initial training opportunities for all individuals (children, youth and adults, girls and women); develop their employability; and facilitate access to work.

A. Evolving Objectives and Provision of Basic Education and Initial Training

As contemporary societies become more complex, many countries are broadening the scope of basic education to incorporate new knowledge and portable skills for the world of work and for living in the knowledge and information society. Secondary education at lower level is increasingly part of compulsory basic education and its objective is more than just preparing students for higher education. Basic education "ensures to each individual the full development of the human personality and citizenship, and lays the foundation for employability". Initial training helps to develop "further his or her employability by providing general core work skills, and the underpinning knowledge, and industry-based and professional competencies which are portable and facilitate the transition into the world of work" (Conclusions, para.5). Good quality basic education and initial training, availability of adult and second chance education, buttressed by a culture of learning, also ensure high levels of participation in continuous education and training. As spelt out in the World Declaration on Education for All: Meeting Basic Learning Needs, Article 1, "basic education is more than an end in itself. It is the foundation for lifelong learning and human development on which countries may build, systematically, further levels and types of education and training"¹. (See World Declaration on Education for All)

Basic education has much to do with an individual's ability to find and retain a job; the less education individuals have, the more likely they are to be unemployed. General education should provide individuals with the minimum requirements (such as literacy and numeracy) to function productively in the workplace. It should also focus on foundation skills, including the ability to identify, analyze and solve problems, the capacity to learn new skills, computer literacy and a grasp of simple scientific knowledge and technology. Basic education should develop childrens' social skills at an early age as well as understanding of citizenship and culture of work, since these skills help them to understand both social rights and claims, and social obligations and responsibilities. Many education systems have neglected this task. As the Conclusions, para. 9 emphasize "individuals are considered to be most employable when they have broad-based education and training, basic and portable high-level skills, including teamwork, problem solving, information and communications technology (ICT) and communication and language skills, learning to learn skills, and competencies to protect themselves and their colleagues against occupational hazards and diseases". These skills, often also called "core work skills" should be every individual's intellectual baggage when leaving school.

Education should prepare young people for non-linear career paths and the likelihood of several career changes during their working lives. It should convey a positive image of enterprise and entrepreneurship, break down sex stereotypes and promote gender sensibility. Also, it should develop their capacity to improvise and be creative and, in general, equip them to deal with the complexities of a rapidly changing world. Instilling these skills for the promotion of each individual's employability is, more than ever, a major task of basic education.

Vocational education and initial training should instil knowledge of science and technology within a broad occupational area and develop the requisite technical and professional competencies and specific occupational skills. A critical issue for vocational education and training is the emphasis placed upon general academic education and development of portable skills on one hand, and on occupationally-oriented training on the other, in order to facilitate the smooth transition from school to work and enhance individuals' basic employability.

In most countries, at some intermediate age between 11 and 15, students tend to be channeled into streams of the education system that emphasize either academic or vocational skills. The academic stream usually prepares for tertiary education and entry to university and has relatively little job-related content, given the pressure to meet the competitive entry requirements of higher education. Increasingly however, academic education in schools also develops portable core work skills, like teamwork, problem solving, ICT skills, understanding of entrepreneurship, communication and language skills, and learning to learn skills. These are skills needed to build-up individuals' employability, which will subsequently help them to adapt to rapid changes in the workplace and society. The vocational stream includes a wide range of programmes with various levels of work-based content, but entry into these tends to occur later as the duration of compulsory basic education is extended. Like academic education, vocational education and training also emphasize more and more portable core work skills and employability. At one end of the spectrum is school-based learning, which includes work familiarization and practical exercises designed primarily to prepare students for work or for post-secondary vocational training. At the other end, alternating periods of accredited learning are rigorously organized at school and in an enterprise, often in the form of modern apprenticeship. The aim is to produce skilled workers who can gain access to jobs smoothly. These streaming decisions, which generally involve some form of individual assessment, have traditionally been immutable, but they are becoming increasingly permeable. Education systems increasingly facilitate new pathways and progress between various types of education and training. Changing the content of education and initial training demands a new relationship between education and the world of work and a shift in responsibilities between the public and private sectors.

Training programmes outside the formal education system are also common. These are often supervised by Ministries of Labour, and run by independent bodies and financed by governments or employers, or by both. Entry requirements and the duration of training vary considerably. They often target school leavers, with or without school-leaving certificates, unemployed youth and employed workers who need to improve their skills. Vocational training courses of short duration are more work-oriented and flexible compared with vocational education. In some countries, e.g. in Latin America, these programmes have grown into major institutions (INACAP, SENAI, SENAC, SENAR, SENA and others), often having many more students than school-based vocational education. Many training programmes have also, like in vocational education, expanded their apprenticeship type programmes by integrating school-based education with workplace-based learning in enterprises. Hence, many countries have witnessed a progressive convergence of their education and training systems and a standardization of education and training supply and occupational profiles in response to broad skill requirements.

Proprietary training, provided by private training firms and institutions, has traditionally been a large supplier of skills in the industrialized world, and has recently grown rapidly in many developing countries. Growth in proprietary training has mostly been in the area of non-industrial skills such as service occupations, computing and information technology, management, and accounting; it has largely avoided training for technical and industrial occupations, which tends to require more costly investments. Proprietary training have grown in response to employer and individual demand for increased opportunities for initial and continuous training. Responding often to short term demand, proprietary institutions tend to focus on specific work related skills. Private training institutions finance their operations primarily by charging fees, sometimes complemented by government subsidies. A large share of the tuition and other fees charged by these institutions may also be underwritten in the form of state grants and low-cost individual student loans.

Informal apprenticeship is a form of proprietary training common in countries that have a large informal sector, both rural and urban. Informal apprenticeship often absorbs a large number of young people, and is now also being examined for wider use in other countries as a means of augmenting the supply of skilled trainees for informal employment. By giving artisans economic support, and training and learning materials, governments and NGOs hope to overcome some of the shortcomings of informal apprenticeship, in particular its little education and portable content.

Private education and training supply have been spurred less by pure market forces than by public policies that offered private agents incentives and subsidies to engage them in executing programmes. However, profit making private institutions are unlikely to become the principal purveyors of education and initial training in most developing countries. In the present context of often severe income and social inequalities there, the participation of disadvantaged population groups in education and training cannot be assured by privately run education and training. Also, education and training are often long time endeavours that are less conducive to be met by private profit making institutions, frequently operating in a short term perspective. Nevertheless private institutions, and also NGOs, community organizations and other actors have been instrumental in adapting education and training to local economic and social needs and constitute a valuable source of learning opportunities supplementary to public provision.

B. Education and Initial Training Reforms: Trends and Practices

1. Current situation

Inequalities of access to education and training in and between countries remain formidable. In 1998, the net enrolment rates in primary education was 60 per cent in sub-Saharan Africa, 74 per cent in South and West Asia, 76 per cent in the Arab States and North Africa, 92 per cent in Central Asia, 94 per cent in Latin America and the Caribbean, 97 per cent in East Asia and the Pacific and 98 per cent in more developed regions. The enrolment rate in primary education in sub-Saharan Africa fell between 1980 and 1997. Basic literacy eludes over 40 per cent of adults in Sub-Saharan Africa and South and West Asia.². The funding impact of structural adjustment programmes in many African countries has often negatively affected educational enrolment and quality.

In the advanced industrialized countries, which have extended basic education to most of their populations, the emphasis is on improving educational quality and access to education and initial training opportunities of disadvantaged population groups, and addressing the still considerable gap in access between the sexes. In many transition economies in Europe and Asia, the main task is to address the mismatch between available skills and existing education and training programmes on one hand, and, on the other, the demand for new skills that their economies need as they embrace the market economy. Countries in Latin America, North Africa, and East Asia have high education participation rates, but inequality in access, and quality shortcomings are considerable. Issues of equity, financing, and definition of the roles between the public and private sectors need to be resolved as they make the transition from elitist to modern systems that embrace their entire population in lifelong learning. The least developed countries, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa and parts of South Asia face the huge challenge of providing all school-age children with the core skills identified in national curricula. Many girls and children, in rural areas in particular, are unable to attend school, while others drop out of school before mastering essential basic skills. Illiteracy rates among women and girls are sometimes double those of men and boys.

National and international public investment should ensure a minimum level of quality and universal access to basic education, particularly in rural areas and for women and other disadvantaged groups. Many countries must undertake the often politically difficult task of changing investment priorities in favour of basic education. In 1990, the Jomtien Education for All Conference in Thailand developed a plan to increase learning and educational quality in schools, and to attain universal primary education before the year 2000. In Dakar, the World Education Forum (2000) pushed back the date to 2015, with the commitment that "all children, particularly girls, children in difficult circumstances and those belonging to ethnic minorities, have access to and complete free and compulsory primary education of good quality". Most recently (July 2001), the High Level Panel of the Youth Employment Network formulated a set of recommendations that the heads of the United Nations, the World Bank and the ILO invite all heads of state and government to mobilize national and local actors to, inter alia, make basic education and initial training more accessible to young men and women. These recommendations are being followed up by concrete technical cooperation activities. A selected text of the recommendations are given in Box 3.1.

2. Trends and Practices

Expanding compulsory education and integrating general and vocational education and training

Several countries have integrated vocational and general education by merging various types of educational institutions, by increasing the general studies content of vocational streams, or by integrating vocational subjects into general upper-secondary education. The duration of compulsory education has been extended. Initial training is provided in schools and in specialized institutions, and it also increasingly includes workplace-based learning.

In Norway, in 1994, a major reform of the entire upper secondary school system gave all 16-19 year olds the right to receive three years of upper secondary education that makes them eligible for further studies or an occupation. The reforms increased the general, portable content of vocational education, raised the number of those awarded vocational certificates and qualifications for entrance into higher education, while it endevoured to reduce, or even eliminate, the number of dropouts from upper secondary, education, both academic and vocational. Vocational education, including apprenticeship training, is today an integral part of upper secondary education. The basic vocational education model offers the student a three-year education, with different vocational streams (box 3.2). Schools often give both general courses and vocational courses. The number of foundation courses during the first year of study was reduced from more than hundred to thirteen, while a broader vocational education curriculum also put stress on the development of general, portable skills such as Norwegian and English language skills, mathematics, natural science, and sports and physical education.

In Spain, the 1990 Law on the General Organization of the Education System (Ley de Ordenacion General del Sistema Educativo-LOGSE) extends free compulsory education to the age of 16. All students follow some general technical training and are given the opportunity to take optional subjects that allow for some pre-employment experience or activity. After completing compulsory secondary education, the students can continue to upper secondary education, either general education or intermediate vocational training. On top of these streams there will also be higher vocational training. (Spain Education System).

In Brazil, the Ministry of Education is modernizing vocational education, adopting a competency-based approach and developing systems of certification in order to facilitate continuous education and labor market insertion. New legal instruments (Law on Basic Guidelines for Education (LDBE no. 9394 of 1996) and the Decree on National Curricular Directives for Vocational Education-DCNs (no. 2208 of April 1997)) provide for the development of vocational education curricula. Vocational education is complementary to basic education, and can be acquired in schools, specialized institutions or in the workplace. In order to encourage further study, the law provides for pathways between various levels of education and access to certification through the recognition of knowledge and skills gained at work. Vocational education has become more generic, and definition of trades has been discontinued. Local education authorities are free to develop curricula according to local needs and circumstances, on the basis of occupational areas defined in the directives.

Chile has undertaken successive education reforms³. Mirroring international and domestic workplace trends, the most recent reforms of mid-level technical-professional education in Chile expanded the general education content of the first two years, and redefined the role of vocational education, which is now part of general secondary education, and intended to prepare students for labour market entry and promote their social inclusion. The Ministry has used the competency approach to develop educational trajectories that facilitate life-long learning. The reforms emphasize linkages with industry. In 1999, a "dual" programme of vocational education was introduced, in collaboration with the Government of Germany (Decree no. 220 of 18 May 1998).

Denmark, Hungary, and Sweden have also increased the general education content of upper-secondary vocational education, giving students the conceptual knowledge and skills they need in working life. They also have better access to tertiary study. In Sweden today, students who go on to further studies represent nearly all vocational areas. However, weaker students often face difficulties meeting the higher demands of general education subjects, while teachers sometimes find it difficult to relate some general education content to the world of work. Also, vocational students tend to gain access to further study only if they have done well in general subjects.

Australian state governments have recently integrated vocational education and training into upper secondary education in an effort to equip young people with the skills that employers need. Senior secondary studies will provide expanded and better quality opportunities for nationally recognized vocational education and training qualifications. The new VET in Schools initiative allows secondary students to take vocational education courses at school, or with public and private training providers, and combine work with general and vocational education, on a part or full time basis. Students will graduate with full or partial VET qualifications and a senior secondary certificate that will boost their prospects of finding jobs. They will also be able to use the credits so gained towards VET qualification at higher levels (ANTA: Vocational education and training in schools).

Modernizing apprenticeship

Workplace change and technological innovation and their upward skill bias generate demand for higher technical and specialist skills, combined with an understanding of the broader economic and social context of occupations, work and industry. Efforts to reform apprenticeship, for example in Germany, attempt to broaden the content of apprenticeship learning and training, often expanding the educational, contextual part of the learning programme.

In South Africa, the new learnerships are a flexible form of apprenticeship. They have, in common with apprenticeship, the addition of workplace learning to the learning programme and a practical assessment of competence. Replacing the narrow, craft-based apprenticeships of the past, learnerships can take place in different work contexts: the public sector, enterprises, universities, etc. They combine theory with practice, are broader in scope, and cover a vast array of qualifications. Therefore, they appeal to different learners. They can be in any of the twelve areas of the National Qualifications Framework (NQF), i.e. in general, further and higher education and training. For example, "chartered accountant: audit specialism" (at level 7, out of altogether eight levels in the NQF) is included among the learnerships of the Financial and Accounting Services Sector Education and Training Authority (SETA)⁴. (See, Adrienne Bird: National Monograph on Technical and Vocational Training in South Africa)

The "new apprenticeships" in Australia, introduced in 1998, have expanded rapidly, a testimony to their appeal among individuals and employers. New apprenticeships aim to broaden the industrial and occupational base for apprenticeship learning. Individuals can today take up apprenticeships in virtually all sectors and industries, groups of companies, and occupations. Considerable success has been achieved in making the new apprenticeships better reflect the country's employment structure. In 2001, 32 per cent of jobs were in the clerical, sales and service occupations; in that year these same occupations had 30 per cent of new apprenticeships. However, the share of managerial and administrative occupations among jobs (7 per cent of total) has not been matched by an equivalent increase in apprenticeships, presently at 1 per cent⁵.

A few countries, e.g. India and Pakistan, apply compulsory apprenticeship training schemes. Employers' training responsibilities are recognized legally. In India, the apprenticeship training scheme (The Apprenticeship Act, 1961) is an important source of skilled workers in the country. Employers are obliged to engage a certain number of trade apprentices based on the number of their employees and the type of industry they represent. Industry is required to impart on-the-job training while theoretical instruction is offered in government's training centres. In 2000, some 17,800 establishments engaged some165,500 apprentices (150,000 in 1996) covering some 254 industries (218 in 1996) and 138 designated trades (130 in 1996). On completion of training, trade apprentices have to pass the All India Trade Tests conducted by the National Council for Vocational Training (NCVT). Apprentices receive stipends, paid by the employer, which increase with each year of training. There is also apprenticeships for graduates and diploma holders in engineering and technology and for students graduating from the vocational stream of general education schools ("technician (vocational) apprentices"). In addition, the Apprenticeship Act encourages employers to offer places to people representing disadvantaged groups. In 2000, scheduled castes accounted for 7 per cent of places, scheduled tribes 1 per cent, minorities 7 per cent, physically handicapped 0.14 per cent, and women twenty per cent⁶.

3. New Institutional Arrangements for Providing Education and Initial Training

Reforms of education and training content and curricula have been undertaken in a rapidly evolving institutional context. The growth of private provision has been significant. Regional, local and community organizations, including NGOs, increasingly provide education and initial training services. Box 3.3 illustrates the role that NGOs can play in basic education. Devolution of training provision has meant that the state's activities increasingly focus on national coordination, developing national education and initial training curricula and providing financial support and incentives for locally implemented education and training.

Decentralization

Latin America has a tradition of centralized and powerful training institutions. In recent years, for example, INA (Costa Rica), SENA (Colombia), INTECAP (Guatemala) and several training institutions in Brazil have given their respective regional departments significant policy making, planning and executing autonomy. Decentralisation has allowed the institutions to become better attuned to the social and economic circumstances of specific localities and has mobilized a range of local actors in various training initiatives. Box 3.4 illustrates the case of Brazil.

Bringing decision-making power and accountability closer to communities and schools

Local communities and parents are increasingly concerned with issues of school development, resource management and curriculum development, as they endeavour to make basic education more relevant to local development, social and labour market needs. Work-orientation elements are being introduced into basic education to ensure that it meets the needs of young people for working in the community. While responsibility for basic education and initial training remains invested in governments, contributions by parents and communities often account for a significant and growing share. Beneficiaries who pay are likely to monitor carefully the quality of the services they receive. In principle, fees and other contributions paid by non-poor beneficiaries could free up public resources for targeting the poor.

In Chile, based on vouchers given to parents, the latter can choose the schools of their preference, while municipalities and private school-owners receive grants based on the number of students they are able to attract. The government has also transferred to mayors all decisions regarding personnel, employment and management of the public school system, including allocations and grants for school construction and rehabilitation. Decentralisation has led to greater private education supply, and an absolute increase of education and initial training enrolments. More days are attended by students at school; there is more participation by business associations and a well administered testing system; and a larger share of public resources are allocated to primary education⁸. Increased flexibility through deregulation was the key to educational expansion. Growth of enrolments in private education and initial training may have improved overall cost-effectiveness⁹. (See Winkler, D. and T. Rounds: Municipal. and Private Sector Response to Decentralization and Social Choice)

El Salvador's Community-Managed Schools Programme (Educaccion con Participacion de la Communidad-EDUCO) has expanded education in rural areas by enlisting and financing community management teams to run schools. Parents, who are elected by the community, make up these teams. The schools follow a centrally determined curriculum and must enrol a minimum number of students, but can hire and fire teachers and equip and maintain schools. In comparison with traditionally managed schools, EDUCO schools have lower teacher and student absenteeism and comparable education and training outcomes¹⁰.

Non-formal initial education and training

A wide range of non-formal initiatives have been developed to provide various groups, including young people, poorly educated workers, rural workers, women, migrants and disadvantaged groups, basic education and skills to improve their employability and facilitate their labour market and social integration. These programmes are generally provided outside formal systems and are not formally recognized. However, countries like Australia, Singapore and South Africa are integrating also such non-formal training supply into national systems of recognized qualifications. The diversity of programmes and measures is illustrated by a few cases below.

In Singapore, the Skills Development Fund has actively encouraged employers to enrol their employees in non-formal, recognized basic education programmes that are administered by the Institute of Technical Education. These include Basic Education for Skills Training (BEST) Programme which provides basic literacy and numeracy training, and Worker Improvement through Secondary Education (WISE) programme for adults to improve their competency in English and maths. In Thailand, 3 months to 1 year long non-formal education programmes are run by many governments departments, state and private enterprises, NGOs and schools. These target students who have completed primary education, but have no secondary education. Pre-employment courses include basic skills training in electrical, automotive and construction technology and include an industry-training component. In 1995, the two Government departments responsible for major non-formal education programmes enrolled some 375,000 students. However, these programmes do not allow for progression in the formal education system.

In Barcelona, Spain, Workshop Schools help marginalised young people, who have never worked, have no vocational qualifications, and are looking for a manual job. Training develops their basic vocational skills, helps them gain self-confidence and self-esteem and assume responsibility for their own lives. It combines theory and practice in a socially relevant context. Students learn trade and job-search skills, and also basic management skills to help them become self-employed. Trainers work part-time which enables them to maintain another job and keep in touch with labour market and technical developments. Students' insertion into employment is being assisted and monitored by a special agency Barcelona Activa. In the Netherlands, regional training centres (ROCs) assist young people who risk dropping out of school or who have left school without a certificate but want to complete their education. These Centres integrate and consolidate various programmes of vocational training and adult education, providing educational assistance, basic vocational training and training for self-employment, intermediate management training and specialist training. Students can move from one type of study to another if they are experiencing difficulties in the one chosen. The Centre guides students, mediates between teachers and students and advises on training and employment problems. In Brazil, rather than running physical training centres, SENAR (The National Rural Training Service) has opted for a "virtual" network of services that are outsourced to private providers. These provide education and training services to rural populations, e.g. literacy programmes, training for young people and social promotion activities.

The Somaliland Education Initiative for Girls and Young Men (SEIGYM), supported by the Africa Educational Trust (AET), uses vouchers to encourage disadvantaged youth gain essential reading and work skills. Technical and vocational training institutions invariably demand that entrants have school qualifications. The vouchers allow disadvantaged youth to locate and pay for literacy and numeracy training before they go on to skills training for employment. More than 5,000 disadvantaged girls, young women and young ex-militia men have been given literacy, numeracy and vocational training. SEIGYM uses a variety of providers of non-formal education and training: carpenters, driving instructors, painters, tailors, nurses, etc. Vouchers are redeemable through AET only if it has inspected the provider and certified its standard of training¹¹.

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[ Index | Introduction | Chapter 1 | Chapter 2 | Chapter 4 |
Chapter 5 | Concluding remarks | Annex 2 | Annex 3 | Annex 4 ]